Welcome, ghosts and goblins, witches and restless souls! As the veil between worlds thins, it’s time to journey into the eerie roots of Halloween and its ancient Celtic twin, Samhain (pronounced “sow-win”). Whether you’re donning costumes for candy or conjuring spirits under the midnight moon, this holiday is steeped in history, magic and a healthy dose of fright.
Long before Halloween became a sweet-toothed celebration, the Celts of ancient Ireland, Scotland and Wales marked Samhain, the festival that signified the end of harvest and the beginning of the dark half of the year. On October 31, it was believed that the veil between the living and the dead grew thin, allowing spirits—kind and cruel alike—to roam the earth. To appease these wandering souls, people left offerings of food and drink outside their homes—an early version of trick-or-treating, centuries before the candy aisle existed.
But Samhain was not just about restless ghosts. It was a sacred time to honour ancestors. Families would set an extra place at the table for departed loved ones, inviting their spirits to join the feast. If Aunt Bethy happened to return from beyond the grave, you can bet she was served with the family’s finest silverware.
Samhain was the most important of the four Celtic fire festivals, symbolising the halfway point between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice. During this time, families would let the hearth fires in their homes burn out, then gather for a communal ceremony led by Druid priests. Together, they lit a great bonfire using a spinning sun-wheel, a symbol of the sun’s power, to spark the flames through friction. Prayers were said, and cattle were sacrificed to ensure protection through the harsh winter ahead. Each household then carried a flame from the sacred fire back to their home to rekindle their hearth, a gesture of unity and renewal.
Attendance at Samhain was mandatory. Ancient texts describe it as a three-day, three-night festival where absences could invite divine punishment: illness or even death. The celebration had a military edge too, with thrones prepared for commanders and strict prohibitions against violence. Anyone who drew a weapon during the festival risked execution.
Despite its strict codes, Samhain was filled with feasting and revelry — mead and beer flowed freely over six days of celebration. And because the night was believed to thin the boundary between realms, people left offerings of food in fields and doorways to please fairies (Sídh) and wandering spirits.
To avoid being abducted by fairies or tricked by spirits, Celts dressed up as animals or monsters, the first costumes in Halloween’s long lineage. The festival’s folklore teemed with creatures both fearsome and fascinating:
Púca, a mischievous shape-shifter, received the last offerings of the harvest.
Lady Gwyn, a headless woman in white, chased travellers at night, accompanied by a black pig.
The Dullahan, a terrifying headless horseman with flaming-eyed steeds, heralded death.
The Sluagh, phantom hunters flying from the west, were believed to snatch souls into the Otherworld.
Samhain also served as the backdrop for Celtic legends. In The Second Battle of Mag Tuired, the divine Tuatha Dé Danann fought the demonic Fomorians during Samhain. In The Adventures of Nera, a hero journeyed between worlds, encountering corpses and fairies alike. Even the legendary warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill had his Samhain battles, facing Aillen, a fire-breathing creature that burned down Tara each year, and venturing into the mystical Land Beneath the Wave for magical encounters.
As the Middle Ages dawned, Samhain evolved. The grand bonfires turned into smaller family hearths called Samghnagans, lit near farms to protect against witches and malevolent fairies. These flames symbolised both protection and communion with the unseen.
It was also during this period that the jack-o’-lantern was born. Originally, people carved turnips and placed burning coals inside to ward off spirits. When Irish immigrants carried the tradition to America centuries later, they swapped the hard turnip for the softer, more carveable pumpkin, giving birth to Halloween’s glowing orange icon.
Different regions had their own eerie customs. In Wales, men hurled burning logs at each other in wild games, while Northern England’s revellers paraded with noisemakers to drive away spirits. Families also observed the “dumb supper”—a silent meal held to invite ancestors. Guests ate only after offering food to their departed kin. Doors and windows were left open for spirits to come and go freely, and cakes were placed as offerings. Children played games for the spirits’ amusement, while adults quietly shared memories and reflected on the past year.
As Christianity spread, Church leaders sought to reframe Samhain’s pagan practices. In the 5th century, Pope Boniface moved the festival to May 13, dedicating it to saints and martyrs, but Celtic communities ignored the decree, keeping their autumn fires burning.
In the 8th century, Pope Gregory III tried again, moving All Saints’ Day to November 1, aligning it with Samhain’s timing. The night before became known as All Hallows’ Eve, which over time transformed into Halloween. Later, All Souls’ Day on November 2 was added to honour the dead. Yet despite these efforts, many pagan customs persisted—the bonfires, feasts, and belief in the returning spirits of the departed.
From cauldrons to broomsticks, witches have long enchanted—and terrified—the human imagination. But the true story of witchcraft is one of fear, persecution, and hysteria.
Between the 15th and 17th centuries, witchcraft trials surged across Europe amid social and religious turmoil. Misfortunes such as plague or crop failure were often blamed on witches—scapegoats believed to consort with the Devil. The 1486 publication of the infamous “Malleus Maleficarum” (The Hammer of Witches) by inquisitor Heinrich Kramer fanned these fears, claiming that women were more susceptible to demonic temptation. This reinforced the belief that witchcraft was a female crime.
Those accused faced unspeakable torture:
The Strappado, which dislocated shoulders by suspending victims from their bound arms.
The Witch’s Bridle, a metal gag to prevent “spells.”
Thumbscrews and the Rack, designed to crush bones and extract confessions.
Confessions rarely saved anyone. Most accused witches were executed by burning at the stake, a fire intended to “purify the soul.” In England, witches were often hanged, though their corpses might still be burned afterwards.
The Trier Witch Trials (1581–1593) in Germany claimed 368 lives, including nobles and clergy. The Würzburg and Bamberg trials (1626–1631) took over 900 lives across German towns. In England’s Pendle Witch Trials (1612), ten of twelve accused were hanged.
Scotland’s witch hunts were among the deadliest—nearly 4,000 executions between the 16th and 18th centuries. Even minor “devil’s marks” like moles were considered proof of a pact with Satan.
Across the Atlantic, the Salem Witch Trials (1692) in Massachusetts echoed Europe’s hysteria. What began with strange behaviour among young girls spiralled into paranoia and 19 executions, with others dying in prison, many condemned by “spectral evidence,” or ghostly visions claimed by witnesses.
The majority of those accused were women—often poor, widowed or nonconforming. Those who lived alone, practised herbal medicine, or defied patriarchal norms were branded as witches. The persecution reflected society’s fear of women’s autonomy and wisdom. Midwives, healers and herbalists—once pillars of their communities—were now demonised.
As Wiccan Priestess Ipsita Roy Chakraverti writes in Way of the Witch, “The first divinity we worshipped, the Mother Goddess, was a witch.” The word witch stems from the Old English wicce or wicca, meaning “wise.” Wicca, she explains, was not a religion but a path, a way of life rooted in ancient matriarchal societies and universal paganism. In Rome, the goddess Diana—independent and powerful—was revered by early Wiccans. Interestingly, Chakraverti notes that the Indian word dayan (used negatively today) traces its roots to the same goddess once honoured and respected.
So the next time you see a pointed hat, a carved pumpkin or hear a witch’s cackle in the dark, remember: these are echoes of ancient rituals and centuries of transformation. The witches, once hunted and burnt, have left their mark on history—their wisdom and mystery now live on in every glowing jack-o’-lantern, every whispered spell, and every Halloween night when the veil grows thin once again.
What is Samhain and how is it connected to Halloween?
Samhain is an ancient Celtic festival marking the end of the harvest and the beginning of the “dark half” of the year. Many of its customs — bonfires, spirits wandering, costumes — laid the groundwork for what eventually became Halloween.
When was Samhain traditionally celebrated?
The festival was typically held from sunset on October 31 to November 1, aligning roughly halfway between the autumn equinox and winter solstice.
What were some common rituals during Samhain?
Key rituals included lighting communal bonfires, taking flame from the bonfire back to home hearths, leaving offerings of food and drink for ancestors or spirits, disguising oneself to ward off harm from supernatural forces, and fortune-telling practices.
How did Samhain transform into modern Halloween traditions like jack-o’-lanterns and trick-or-treating?
Over centuries, Samhain customs merged with Christian observances such as All Saints’ Day (Nov 1) and All Souls Day (Nov 2). Meanwhile, traditions of carving turnips or gourds (later pumpkins) and leaving treats or offerings evolved into jack-o’-lanterns and trick-or-treating.
Why was Samhain considered a time when the boundary between the living and the dead was thin?
In Celtic belief, the festival marked a liminal period—the transition into winter—when the usual order of the universe was suspended and the world of the spirits overlapped with the living. Thus, extra precautions, rituals and offerings were made.